Iqta System and the evolution of Iqta System under Delhi Sultanate.

 

Iqta System And Its Evolution Under Delhi Sultanate-

 

Introduction- 

Iqta is an Arabic word denoting a sort of administrative regional unit. It is usually considered equivalent to a province. The Iqtas were assigned to individuals called muqtis, iqtedars or waalis. 

The Iqta system was founded towards the conclusion of the Abbasid period and consolidated throughout the Seljuk period. Although there were numerous varieties of Iqtas in the west and central Asia, the Indian system was based on the Seljuk pattern, known as the Mustaghall type of Iqta, which allowed no inherited rights. Both military and administrative aspects were crucial in this, but the military gradually took precedence. The Iqta was the foundation of the Turks' political and military systems.

The classical description of the iqta is given by Tusi (a Seljukid statesman of the 11th century) in Siyasat Nama.

"Muqtis who hold iqtas should be aware that they have no claim on the subjects/peasants (riaya) other than to collect the required mal (tax, land tax) that has been assigned to them appropriately" (the muqtis). 

Those subjects/ peasants should be safe from (any demands by) them (the muqtis) in respect of their persons, riches, wives and children, cultivated lands (Ziya), and goods once the revenue has been realized from them. There are no (additional) claims against the muqtis. Subjects/peasants can come to the (king's) court and represent their situation if they choose.They should not be hindered in their efforts. If a muqti does anything else, they (the monarchs) take away his power (literally, chop away his hands), restore his iqta, and visit their wrath on him, in order to warn others. They (the muqtis) should understand that the country and peasantry (raiyat) are entirely under the sultan's control, with the muqtis (merely) acting as his representative.”

The muqti was thus a tax collector and army paymaster rolled into one.

This system, nevertheless, strengthened the empire’s administration and at the same time allowed it to maintain huge armies. The Muqtis never possessed unlimited power and were prohibited from exploiting the poor. They were kept in check by the Sultan, who excised the supreme power. The area of the empire that did not come under Iqta was called Khalisa. The revenue from the khalisa was collected directly from the royal treasury by the sultan’s officials called amils.

Duties of an Iqtadar-

• The Iqtadar was under the supervision of the central government and carried orders of the Sultan.
• He enjoyed the same powers in the province as the Sultan enjoyed in the empire.
• He maintained large armies and was required to send the same whenever the sultan wished.
• Furthermore, he collected revenue from the people of his Iqta and maintained the expenditure of his army. 
• He has to send a yearly report of his income and expenditure to the centre.

Restrictions on an Iqtadar-

• The Iqtadars didn’t enjoy hereditary powers. They were liable to be transferred.
• The Iqtadar could not engage himself in wars of extension by his own will. He required the permission of the sultan to do so.
• Elephants and the prisoners of war captured were required to send to the sultan. 
• The Iqtadar could not mint coins or read khutba in his own name. He was not allowed to hold his own court and use his own emblem. 

During the rule of a weak sultan, the Iqtadars enjoyed even more powers and dared to keep large herds of elephants to themselves. The efficient functioning of an Iqta depended on the power of the sultan in the central government and the capability of the Iqtadar in the Iqtas.

Further divisions of Iqtas-

Iqtas were divided into smaller units called “shiqqs”, “parganas” and the villages.

The head of a shiqq was called shiqqdar. Important officials of the pargana were amil, munsif and kanungo.

The village, the smallest unit of administration, was administered by the local hereditary officers (chaudhary, patwari,khut, muqqaddam) and the panchayat of the village.

The Sultan or the governor of the state normally did not interfere in the village administration.

Evolution Of the Iqta System Under Delhi Sultanate- 

In northern India during the attacks by the Ghorians, the troops were maintained in two ways—plunder and collection of tribute through the iqtedari system, which in those years was not institutionalized.

Under Iltutimish-

In the sultanate, the Iqta system was developed gradually by Iltutmish. Though Mohammad of Ghori was the first to introduce it in 1206, it was Iltutmish who institutionalized it and all autonomous principalities were converted to Iqtas.

Iltutmish also introduced the practice of transferring Muqtis from one iqta to the other.

Apart from this, Iltutmish also paid attention to the expansion of Khalisa which covered the Delhi and the very fertile surrounding region of doab. 

Iltutimish even paid the cavalry soldiers through land assessment.

Under Balban-

Historian Irfan Habib highlights that under the rule of Balban, all other practices continued as they were going on, but the demand from iqtedars increased. Balban followed very strict measures to get the Iqtadars to deposit the excess amount (fawazil) from the Iqtas.

An official called Khawaja (an accountant) was appointed to monitor and check the revenue collection in the Iqtas.

All these points toward the increased interest of the central government in revenue collection and the desire to increase its own treasury.

Under Allaudin Khilji

Allaudin Khilji brought harsh changes and increased central government intervention in the iqtedari system. His aim was to maintain his greatly expanded empire. For smooth administration, more territories from around Delhi were brought under Khalisa.

Cavalry soldiers were now paid in cash instead of land assessments. 

Khilji also got involved in the collection and assessment of agrarian taxes from both - Khalisa and Iqtas which decreased the autonomy of Iqtadars in the Iqtas.

A separate office - Diwan-i-wizarat was formed. It was responsible for estimating kharaj from each Iqta. A part of the iqta was set apart by the diwan for the Muqti to maintain his army and the cost of his own living. 

Though, the strictness led to a rise in corruption among the Iqtedars, and they began to hide the actual revenue by many cheating methods. This led to even more severity by Allaudin and strict punishment including torture for years was set up for the guilty.

Under Ghiyasuddin Tughluq 

Ghiyasuddin Tughluq brought some relaxation to the Iqta system and the Iqtadars. 

An upper cap of 1/10th was set to increase the estimate to tax income to prevent the ultimate burden going on the peasantry. 

Punishments were now less harsh and atrocities were abated. 

Overall, there was ease in the whole process of revenue collection.

Under Muhammad Bin Tughluq

Muhammad Tughluq radically changed the Iqta system by separating the two functions of tax collection and troop maintenance. This new system of dual maintenance is also confirmed by Ibn Battuta.

The aim was to increase the income of the state, and the removal of the obligation to maintain troops allowed him to collect more taxes from the Iqtadars. The latter now received only a part of the Iqta that was equivalent to his own salary.

Ifran Habib concluded that the disarrangement of the Iqta system led to disagreements between Muhammad Bin Tughluq and his army officials.

Under Firuz Tughluq

When Firuz Tughul took over Delhi Sultanate in the 14th century, He structured and brought a new estimate of the revenue called “Jama”.

The Jama was kept fixed and no enhancements to it were made throughout the rule of Firuz.

This decreased the pressure on the Muqtis. 

Firuz also increased the personal pay of the Muqtis and nobles and distributed the land of iqta among the people in the name of God. He made the Iqtas in the Iqta system hereditary.

It is speculated that his policy of “assigning away lands in Iqtas” weighed heavily on the royal treasury, and even the land under Khalisa was drastically reduced.

Under the Lodis

Under the Lodis, the term iqta was replaced by Sarkar and Pargana. Both of these were territorial divisions where a Sarkar consisted of many parganas. 

Each Sarkar was assigned a jama or estimated revenue whose purpose must have been to fulfill the military and other obligations.

The principal assignees under Sikandar Lodi used to sub-assign some portion of the territories or pargana to their subordinates, who again paid the soldiers by the same means.

By the time of Ibrahim Lodi, the Sultanate was too involved in dealing with revolts and rebellions and no further changes were made as the Sultanate came to an end with an invasion of Babur and the establishment of the Mughals. 

Conclusion-

The Iqta system was the most significant new institution that arose and played a key part in good government. The Sultanate was able to create a complex, unified administrative network that allowed it to survive for nearly three centuries despite the varying actual rule through this system.